American Promotionalism

issuance of United States of the States itself was an epitome of certain ideologic realisations i. e. liberty, fraternity, equality etc tho the Statesn progress in the policy-making, social, sparing and technological domains capacitated the the Statesn tactual sensation to devise the new ideological patterns and modify the existing ones. The socio- frugal growth of nineteenth century produced a phenomenon of liberal-developmentalism that contains the entire major thematic expressions of the Statesn political orientation.This liberal-developmentalism ideology was a combi earth of Ameri nominate spirits in their cherished ideals and these liberal beliefs were supercharge augmented by the Ameri post historical sense of extraordinary triumphs in the in the socio- frugal sectors. All these factors compelled the the Statesns to assume that their socio-stinting model was of universal in constitution and mustiness be replicated at the universal train. So this ideology united ly with stinting compulsions and mass production set an impetus to export the the Statesn fantasy to other geographical locations.The most wide dole out concern for American foreign form _or_ system of findmentmakers remain that America has a peculiar component and that destiny must be expanded univers t pop out ensembley. So this ideological underpinning form its expression in the strategic and operational mechanisms of American foreign policies during the last hug drug of 19th century and first half of the 20th century. The culmination of institution War II was the America was successful in inculcating their cherished ideals of body politic, capitalism, clean-handed trade etc. in the new creative activity order. study tenets of American ideology Emily S.Rosenberg (1982) has recognized five underlying principle of the Liberal-Developmentalism ideology that emerged in the last half of 19th century. According to him, these major traits are (1) belief that other nations cou ld and should replicate Americas protest developmental experience (2) faith in private redundant enterprise(3) support for free and open access for trade and investment (4) promotion of free string up of information and culture and (5) evolution acceptance of g everyplacenmental activity to nurse private enterprise and to stimulate and regulate American break-danceicipation in outside(a) stinting and cultural ex commute.(p. 7) These major tenets of American ideology were inculcated in the spirit and operation of each American foreign constitution move. Whether it is increaseation of Philippines or colonization of Cuba, these ideological parameters were at the helm of the affairs. Furthermore, this American billing to extend and export these ideological patterns universally worked under two motives. unearthly zeal to spread the American version of Christianity with basic features of American socio-economic point of beholdards worked almost with secular and liberal inte lligentsia.Evangelical sectors of American life thought that Christianity was a demand for modernization. So missionaries spread American ideals to different parts of the world. Secular sections of American intelligentsia were of the view that national advancements and global progress are the offspring of a single dream i. e. to propagate American ideology. Rosenberg (1982) asserts that it was the economic needs, Anglo-Saxon mission, and the progressive impulse that worked together with goernment endeavor to set an expansionist agenda and one of the motives for these designs was the spread of American ideology worldwide.Although there were differences over the question how to propagate Americanization that all these seems converging on a single point that means do not matter and it is all about ends i. e. universalizing the American values. (Hunt, 1987) Acquisition of Philippines Acquisition of Philippines in the later part of 1890s generated much controversy across America over the issue. The nation was divided into two opposing groups i. e. imperialists and anti-imperialists.The imperialists favored the annexation cod to their worldview establish on ground realties and practical necessities while anti-imperialists preferred to base their stand on idealistic and nostalgic views of mythic American past. Imperialist was of the view that in the changing world scenario, America should change it isolationist agenda and must assess its strength against the imperial powers of Europe in the foreign arena. The spirit of Manifest Destiny subsisted, and imperialists hankered after to expand the American office and influence overseas.Their external view was further built by the political, economic and strategic necessities. The anti-imperialists believeed the annexation Philippines as an apparent violation of cherished American ideals and political traditions. The imperialist rack can be located by having an in-depth look at the ideas and worldviews of the five who created the first genuine American imperialism i. e. conjuring trick Hay, secretary of state under McKinley and Roosevelt, Alfred T.Mahan, a naval officer and host analyst Elihu Root, secretary of war under McKinley and Roosevelt, and was responsible for the management of the Philippines and Cuba enthalpy Cabot Lodge, the conniving senator from mom, and Theodore Roosevelt. (Zimmermann X) These paragons of American imperialism considered that in the changing international political scenario, America should not reside in a policy of isolation but must establish its foothold on various strategically fundamental locations. The ultimate goal of this policy might not be territorial gains but it should be strategic monopoly of the international politics and commerce.They further reinforced the idea that it is a defining moment in the way America is linked to the world. It will provide Americans and their leaders self-confidence, a sense of their own power, and an abiding belief that they could shape international life according to their values. (Zimmerman I) In addition to these broad concerns, economic gains through the annexation of Philippines further mold the worldview of the imperialists. president was moved by the touchstone of Asian trade (RTAP 52) and economic motives served a proper background for President McKinleys proclamation to annex the islands.His McKinleys object was not a colonial empire but the minimum territory needed to obtain conquest of world markets, along with winning of strategic points necessary to protect the conquest. (RTAP 52) Acting secretary of States William R. Day and Massachusetts republican Senator Henry Cabot Lodge considered that the surpluses produced by American factories require wide markets curiously mainland China. They were further influenced by Brooks Adams theory of center of specie exchanges with a conception that now United States is in a fleck to capture the world economy and rule it.Brooks Adam f urther said, We must sacrifice new markets unless we would be visited by declines in wages and by great industrial disturbances, of which signs render not been lacking. The old theory of competing in foreign markets merely by the price of production is no bimestrial predictable. So a navy, coaling stations and ports in the Easthave sour essential condition in our clippings (RTAP 53) Beside the expansionist design and economic necessities, another factor that contributed to hold the entire archipelago under America was war machine necessity.After attaining host victories in the islands, it was inappropriate to vacate it for other powers to fight over it. It was a commonly held belief among imperialist that by placing A protectorate seemed un fitting, since it would place heavy duties on the United States without supplying enough means to carry them out and Most American believed that freeing the islands would result in internal chaos followed by a German, British, or Japanes e coupNo country made a serious attempt to abnegate the Philippines to United States, but at least four might have collided headlong if Washington turned them loose.(RTAP 48) The anti-imperialist worldview was based on soupy and traditional values of the past. Mostly, it was comprised of ethical and moral issues, Americas anti-colonial foundation and past, its democratic traditions and cherished ideals of liberty and freedom. This altruistic viewpoint was further founded in the fear that these imperialist practices would erode the traditional political fabric of America and would violate the cherished American ideals.Yet for all their passion, the enemies of the new imperialism seemed old-fashioned and out of touch. They looked back to a mythic American past, while Roosevelt and his friends laid telephone call to a bountiful futurethe anti-imperialists were on the losing end of historical change. (Zimmermann VIII) Additionally, anti-imperialists American worldview was molded by humanitarian and racial issues and anti-imperialists denounced that like African American, the Filipinos would be treated the same way and would be negated the basic human rights provisions.This panorama was further supported by feminist stance that identified Filipinos as the American women who are governed without their consent (RTAP 55) Some racial views suggested that assimilation of Philippines east society would harm the social fabric of American society and would have negative effects on the future prospects of American social development. The imperialist position was based on concrete ground realities.Their basic agenda was expansionism or Americanism (as Roosevelt put it) but it overly included the latent political, economic and strategic advantages for America whereas anti-imperialist worldview was grounded in outmoded idealism of the past. Imperialist viewpoint had more practical and beneficial motivation to annex Philippines as Republican Senator Lodge said in the sen ate, the enormous material benefits to our trade, our industries, and our labor pendant upon a right settlement of this question (RTAP 54) Due this imperialist worldview, since 1898, Americas character in the world changed forever.A country that had restricted her power and influence to the western hemisphere suddenly obtained a global reach that it would never throw in the towel (Zimmerman I) This clearly manifested that American annexation of Philippines were motivated by a conspiracy of various factor in which economic necessities and spreading of American dream i. e. to Americanize the peninsula were the chief physical objects. Spanish-American War Spanish-American was another important geo-strategic enterprise that mark the emergence of U. S.as an important international player. Though war marked the radical of American Imperialism, but war itself was not caused by the imperialist or expansionist designs of Americans. The war, as Prof. Blum puts it, grew out of the de plorable conditions in Cuba and seems unendurable to an aroused popular sentiments in the United States. (Blum, p. 502) Another reno3wned historian Samuel Morison consider this exercise a totally emotional enterprise and says, no war was ever more or emotional and less economic in motives (Morison, 1982.p. 801) still his assertion on another occasion seems appropriate as it depicts that American exercise was purely based on their cherished ideals of nation and liberty. He says, This was a closer and more personal war to Americans than any world war and was their own little war for liberty and democracy against all that tyrannical, treacherous, and fetid in the Old piece. (p. 802) America found an apt time and place to exercise their ideological patterns.At last the nation distinguished manifested itself as a major world power and time-tested to play a vital role in the broad international arrangements for the fist time. It consciously became one of the tutors of the backward na tion. Under such pro-consuls as General Leonard Wood, it tried to implant their own ideology in Cuban soil and undertook huge task of psychological and material reformation, reorganizations and development in Cuba. Rosenberg says that General Wood vowed to create a polity molded closely upon lines of our great Republic. Wood brought in a host of experts to reshape Cuba. Americans sour direction of customhouses (the major source of government revenue), findled the countrys finances, form a postal service, established telephone and telegraphic lines, encouraged railroads and deportation facilities, built road, carried out sanitation projectsestablished schoolsand invited New York City legal philosophy to organize their counterparts in Havana. (p. 46) All these measures were intended to Americanize the socio-cultural and economic spheres, some(prenominal) at the ideological and material levels.Rosenberg further says that Cuba thus became a testing ground for methods of influence that fell short of straight-out colonialism. (p. 47) plainly history manifested that outright colonialism and subjugation of other nation is an outdated phenomenon. Furthermore, direct colonialization and annexation produced ire and sentiments of hatred among the dominated nation. So it was a not a suitable mechanism to spread the American dreams and its various ideological expressions. So American spirit for exporting their cherished ideals devised new means to have control on the other geographical territories and to mold their society on American pattern.One of such mechanisms was Howard Tafts Dollar Diplomacy. Taft wad enthusiastic about the military preparedness as his predecessor Roosevelt was. He therefore used the level of American investments to boost American prudence. Fearing the designs of Japan in China, Taft believed that if not canvass Japan would not only seize the entire North China but also freeze out American trade in the Far East. Consequently, he supported the stimulateion of American financed railroads in Manchuria with a view to checkmate the Japanese and to preserve the Open Door in China.He encouraged the bankers to invest their surplus in foreign areas of strategic richness to the United States, especially in the Far East and the regions that might expose the Panama Canal. He feared hat if the American investors would not come forward, investors from pertain powers like Germany would make the necessary investments and gain control over the seas. and as the American capital have never been interested in making investments in Manchuria, the State department even brought pressure on the reluctant banks to invest in this region.This new policy of Dollar diplomacy that substituted one dollar bills for bullets was complete violation of the liberal ideological tenets of freedom of investment. Furthermore this dollar diplomacy was prompted by strategic and imperialist concerns i. e. to check the rapidly growing power of Japan in China instead of promotional objectives. (Nearing and Freeman, 1925) This clearly manifest that sometime during the period 1890-1945, some strategic and defense objective overweighed the higher objective of spreading American ideology abroad and creating a new socio-economic world milieu based on American ideals.Post foundation War I external policy and it correlation with Nationalist ideology A case Study of Germany During World War I, United States was profoundly bear upond in the affairs of the world and allied won he victory mainly due to the support of men, money and materials they got from United States. But after the war ended, most of the American people started feeling that it was tomfoolery on their part to have entered the war because in return for what America gave to the allies, she received nothing.Consequently there was a rethinking about the foreign policy. In the meantime Republicans came to power in America and enunciated a new policy. Harding, the Republican President said about the new foreign policy We seek no part in directing the destinies of the worldwe are ready to partner ourselves with the nations of the world, great and small, for conference and counsel, for suggestions of mediations, conciliation and arbitration but every loyalty must be made in the exercise of our national sovereignty. (Harding, 1923) It would be wrong to attribute this policy of United States as a policy of isolationism or diversion from the American mission of promoting their national ideology abroad. It can more appropriately be described as the policy of cooperation without entangling alliances. This was due to the fact that new subtle and profound international mechanisms were available that can capacitate America to act as a promotional state.A siemens American writer, Manuel Ugarte has identified the change in American policy in these words The United States inaugurated the system of annexing wealth, apart from inhabitants or territories, disdainin g outward shows in order to arrive at the essentials of domination without a exsanguinous-weight of areas to administrate and multitudes to govern (Manuel Ugarte, 1923). Economic activity was one such subtle mechanism that enabled America to spread its ideology of free trade and capitalistic mode of world commercial activity.Peace was an ultimate compulsion for this mechanism to work. Secretary of Commerce Herbert vacuum speech about the American economic activity as a tool of American foreign policy provides an important assessment contact the directions pf American foreign policy. By contributing to peace and economic stability, by the loan of our surplus savings abroad for productive purposes, by the spread f interventions over the world, we can contribute to the elevation of standards of living in foreign countries in their relations to each other. (U. S Department of Commerce, 1926)At the time of assuming office as president, Harding announced that the league issue was dead as slavery and his administration would not lead United States into the conference of Nations by the side penetration, back door or cellar door. Yet in spite of these pronouncements Hardinge as well as Coolidge were compelled to involve their country more deeply into the world arena than ever before. But this time their involvement was on a more subtle and economic level. The first such involvement was in the affairs of Europe when it conclude a peace treaty with Germany.As United States has failed to ratify the treaty of Versailles, she was legally speaking still at war with Germany. In July 1921, Congress passed a resolution by which peace was declared. By this treaty America showed its willingness to devote for the German property seized during the war. This was a subtle move as going away Germany in a state of devastation would had resulted in bad consequences for America and its ideological and strategic objectives in the region. Bolshevik Russia was a logical alternativ e for Germany if American would have created a vacuum.This meant that instead of ideals of liberalism, democracy and free trade, socialism and close-economy would had have encircled the German economy and socio-cultural life. Frank Costigliola (1984) says in this study Pacifying and rebuilding Germany was integral to containing the Bolshevik novelty Bolshevik Russia represented twain a symbolic and a substantive threat to the peaceful change alternative. Most American leaders viewed the Soviet Union as transformation incarnate, despite Moscows caution and conservatism.If Germanys political and economic structure collapsed, its people, American feared, might in desperation forged a Russian alliance to overthrow both Versailles and capitalism. Their very opposition to revolution led Hoover, Hughes, and other American leaders to combat the French policy of rigidly enforcing Versailles, which would only build up pressures for change (p. 96) So resolution of conflicts with Germany, provision of financial, technological and material help to uplift the German socio-economic spheres were arbitrary for Americans.Although these were motivated by certain strategic and political goals but ideological consideration acted as underlying theme in the whole process. This is the cogitate that Hughes appealed to private experts and economists to come with new strategies and theoretical framework to help Germany in its economic turmoil. Export of popular American culture through various means also helped America to spread its influences and ideology abroad. One materialization of this soft power i. e. American culture was its film industry. It helped greatly to conjure up the American ideology abroad and also had effect on trade.Edward G. Lowry as early as 1925 recognized this new factor in the international relationships that has caused the flutter (Lowry, 1925. p. 12) Costigliola is of the view that war weary generation of the West looked toward technologically advance d America for cultural models and America offered its own institutions and values, or what contemporaries termed Americanism (p. 98) America colonized the European through their soft power especially Films and tried to inculcate their own ideological patterns in the spirit and minds of Europeans.All these take the stand and arguments clearly manifest that although American foreign relation was marked with political necessities and economic concerns but ideological underpinning remained an ultimate objective. The political and economic inevitabilities were also manifestation of these ideological underpinnings For ex adenylic acidle, to influence free trade was a material expression of liberalism that originated from public-private partnership in the American history.American concerns in Philippines, Cuba and post World War I apprehensions in Germany was al amalgam of ideological requirement with geo-strategic obligations but it is also a fact that Dollar Diplomacy in Tafts era in C hina was solely motivated by political needs. But all these method, use of military and non-military means, acquisition of territories, elaboration in world economic markets, internationalization of American culture, disarmaments agreement, all were to construct a new world order according to American ideological patterns.South American writer, Manuel Ugarte has rightly summed up the whole phenomenon in these words The tractability of North American imperialism in its external activities, and the diverse forms which it adopts according to the circumstances, the racial composition and social conditions of the people upon which its action is exercised, is one of the most strong phenomenon of this century(p. 139) References Blum, John Morton. The National Experience. San Diego Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. 1985. Connor, William P.United States annexation of the Philippines a reinterpretation. Kingston University of Rhode Island. 1972 Edward G. Lowry. hand Follows the Film. Saturday E vening Post. 198. (November, 1925) 12-13. Frank Costigliola. U. S. Cultural Exapsion in an Era of Systematic hullabaloo in Major Problems in American Foreign documents and essays. Boston Houghton Mifflin. 2000. Harding, rabbit warren G. Inaugural Address. (March 4, 1921) available at Avalon Project, Yale Law School. Website<<www. yale. edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/harding. htm>> Hughes.Debt and German Reparations Hughes Calls on semiprivate Experts for Help, 1922 in Major Problems in American Foreign Relations. Hunt, Michael. Ideology and U. S. Foreign Policy. Yale University Press 1988. Manuel Ugarte. The Destiny of a Continent. Catherine A. Phillips (tr. ). New York. Knopf. 1925. Merrill, Dennis & Paterson, Thomas G. Major problems in American foreign relations documents and essays. Boston Houghton Mifflin. 2000. Morison, Samuel E. The Oxford History of American People. New York, Oxford University Press. 1965. Nearing, Scott& Freeman, Joseph.Dollar diplomacy a study in American imperialism. New York, B. W. Huebsch and the Viking Press. 1925. Rosenberg, Emily S. & Foner, Eric. Spreading the American Dream. New York Hill and Wang, 1982. U. S. Department of Commerce. in Major Problems in American Foreign documents and essays. Boston Houghton Mifflin. 2000. Volker, Karren & Zola, Jaye. The annexation of the Philippines, Denver, CO Center for Teaching International Relations, 1999. Zimmermann,Warren. Jingoes, goo-goos, and the rise of Americas empire. The Wilson quarterly 22. Spring 1998.